ABSINTHE
WHAT IS ABSINTHE?
Absinthe is strong alcoholic liqueur made with an herbal extract including wormwood (Artemisia absinthium).
It is an emerald green drink (due to the presence of chlorophyll) which
is very bitter (due to the presence of absinthin, which has a
bitterness threshold of 1:70,000) and is therefore traditionally
diluted with cold water which is poured over a perforated spoonful of
sugar into a glass containing a shot of absinthe. The drink then turns
into an opaque white as the essential oils precipitate out of the
alcoholic solution, forming a colloidal suspension. Absinthe was once
popular among artists and writers and was used by Van Gogh, Baudelaire, and Verlaine, to name a few. It appears to have been believed to stimulate creativity and to act as a curative and aphrodesiac.
The 1850’s saw the beginnings of concern about the results of chronic
absinthe use. Chronic use was believed to produce a syndrome, called
absinthism, which was characterized by addiction, epileptic attacks,
delerium, and hallucinations. Concern over the health effects of
absinthe was amplified by the prevailing belief in Lamarckian theories
of heredity. In other words, it was believed that any traits acquired
by absinthists would be passed on to their children (Murphy and
Schneider 1992).
In addition to its effects in heavy drinkers, there were several social
reasons why absinthe was ultimately banned. Absinthe’s popularity seems
to have been part of a general increase in alcohol consumption,
particularly in the form of distilled liqueurs. This was accompanied by
the beginnings of the awareness of alcoholism as a problem in France.
Since wine was considered a healthy drink and absinthe was the most
popular liqueur of its time, absinthe was blamed for many
alcohol-related problems and became the main target of early
prohibition efforts in France. Absinthe’s association with the bohemian lifestyle may have worked to compound fears about its effects, much as has happened with marijuana in the United States.
In retrospect, absinthe seems to have become the focus of fears about
the changes that came with industrialization. Absinthe was subsequently
banned in many countries in the early 1900’s.
In addition to the many social and political factors which contributed
to anti-absinthe sentiment, extensive research documented absinthe’s
potential for toxicity. From a modern perspective, this research
appears poorly designed and limited. Nonetheless, it is clear that
absinthe had toxic effects when consumed with sufficient quantities and
regularity. It is highly plausible that thujone and related terpenes
played an important role in this toxicity,
but there are also other possible sources of toxicity. When used in
sufficient quantities, ethanol has profound toxic effects. If it is
likely that absinthe was toxic to heavy users, it is less clear that
the liqueur was uniquely psychoactive. Until more conclusive research
is carried out, theories of absinthe’s special psychoactivity remain interesting speculation and anecdotes.
HOW WAS/IS ABSINTHE MADE?
There were two general ways in which absinthe was made. The first
method, which was more traditional, is described in some detail below.
This was the method used by more established and larger absinthe
producers. The second method involved flavouring industrially produced
(and often impure) ethanol with essential oils extracted from the
plants listed below. This second method probably came into practice
later and seems to have been used mainly by smaller manufacturers.
Simon and Schulter’s Guide to Herbs and Spices tells us that Henri-Louis Pernod
used aniseed, fennel, hyssop, and lemonbalm along with lesser amounts
of angelica, star anise, dittany, juniper, nutmeg, and veronica. These
ingredients were mascerated together with wormwood plants. After
leaving the mixture to sit, water was added and the mixture was
distilled. Dried herbs, including more wormwood, were added to the
distillate, which was then diluted with alcohol to give a concentration
of about 75% alcohol by volume (Simonetti 1990). Different absinthe
manufacturers used slightly different ingredients, sometimes using
nutmeg and calamus, both of which have been purported to have
psychoactive effects.
A more detailed recipe for the first method can be found in Arnold’s Scientific American article:
An 1855 recipe from Pontarlier, France, gives the following
instructions for making absinthe: Macerate 2.5 kilograms of dried
wormwood, 5 kilograms of anise and 5 kilograms of fennel in 95 liters
of 85 percent ethanol by volume. Let the mixture steep for at least 12
hours in the pot of a double boiler. Add 45 liters of water and apply
heat; collect 95 liters of distillate. To 40 liters of the distillate,
add 1 kilogram of Roman wormwood,
1 kilogram of hyssop and 500 grams of lemon balm, all of which have
been dried and finely divided. Extract at a moderate temperature, then
siphon off the liquor, filter, and reunite it with the remaining 55
liters of distillate. Dilute with water to produce approximately 100
liters of absinthe with a final alcohol concentration of 74 percent by
volume (Arnold 1989).
In addition to these ingredients, manufacturers sometimes added other
ingredients to produce the drink’s emerald green color. Normally, this
color was due to the presence of chlorophyll from the plants. However,
in the event that the product was not properly colored, absinthe makers
were known to add things like copper sulfate, cupric acetate indigo,
turmeric, and aniline green. Antimony trichloride
was also used to help the drink become cloudy when added to water
(Arnold 1989, 1988). Undoubtedly, some of the toxic effects attributed
to absinthe were due to these adulterants.
HOW WAS/IS ABSINTHE DRUNK?
Although absinthe was sometimes drunk straight or in a variety of mixed drinks,
the classic method of drinking it involves pouring cold water over a
slotted spoon which contains sugar into a glass containing a shot of
absinthe. As the water hits the absinthe, the oils precipitate out, and
the drink changes from a clear emerald colour to an opaque, milky white.
There were several types of specialized absinthe drinking paraphenalia.
The most famous one is the slotted spoon (example pictured to the
right). These spoons’ holes served to allow the absinthe to better
carry the sugar into the glass. In addition, the spoons were often
designed to fit over the glass, balancing on their own.
Heilig, quoted in Lanier (1995), nicely captures the absinthe culture at its peak:
[In Paris] the noon hour is a little fête, when people try to forget
that they are working for their living. Master and man go off their
different ways… All thoughts of business are put aside for a good hour
and a half, or two hours even … from 11 to 1 or noon. They do not go
immediately to eating. They sit outside upon the sidewalk, even in the
winter time, look at passers-by and sip their drink. The drink is
absinthe. They drink it very slowly; by slow degrees they feel their
poor, tired backbones strengthen and their brains grow clearer, and
they feel a touch of happiness. It is so pleasant to sit looking at the
street and all the pretty ladies passing by. At great cafes, upon
frequented boulevards the price is only 10 cents. In the quarters of
the working men, you may have absinthe for three cents. The proper
thing is to take but one glass. In quantity this is about a Madeira
glass of the green drink. Poured into your goblet by the waiter, it
does not seem much. You fill the goblet up with water, watch it turn a
milky sage tint, with the glittering opal tints one learns to love so
well; stir up the mixture with you spoon, take one small sip and let it
rest. Now that is nice… In summer especially when the ice water is so
agreeable, absinthe captivates the palate by its peculiar and really exquiste fragrance. This fragrance, which is that of paregoric, grows upon you (Helig 1894).
A variation of the traditional drinking ritual is apparently used in
Prague where absinthe is currently available. In this variation, a
heaping teaspoon of sugar is briefly wet in the glass of pure absinthe,
then lit on fire and held over the glass. As the alcohol burns off, the
sugar melts into the glass. When the fire gets low, the remaining sugar
is stirred into the drink and the drink is quickly drunk. Obviously, this is a method for drinking quickly rather than savoring absinthe’s taste.
WHAT INGREDIENT(S) IN ABSINTHE ARE PSYCHOACTIVE?
ETHANOL
Ethanol (normal drinking alcohol)
is definitely one main active component. Undiluted absinthe was
anywhere from 60% to 85% ethanol. Although some, such as Alfred Jarry,
were known to have drunk it straight, it was usually substantially
diluted. Still, dilution could not change the fact that absinthe
contained a lot of ethanol in comparison to its other ingredients.
THUJONE
Another candidate is the monoterpene, thujone, which is considered a
psychoactive convulsant. The sources of thujone in absinthe are the
herbs wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) and Roman wormwood (Artemisia
pontica). There is good evidence that both thujone and wormwood have
psychoactive properties. Some have suggested that this effect is due to
thujone binding at the cannabinoid receptor, at which the active
components in marijuana act (delCastillo et al 1974). This seems
unlikely. Furthermore, it is not even clear that thujone is present in
sufficient quantities to play a role in absinthe intoxication. However,
it is possible that thujone accumulates in the body and plays a role in
the psychoactivity and toxicity of chronic absinthe use.
Thujone is named after the plant from which it was first extracted,
thuja (Thuja occidentalis). Since thujone was also extracted from other
plants before its structure was identified, it is also known as
absinthol, tanacetone, and salviol. According to IUPAC (International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemists) nomenclature, it is officially
called 3 thujamone or 3 sabinone (Albert-Puleo 1978). There are two
stereoisomers of thujone: (-)-3-isothujone (or - or l-thujone) and
(+)-3-thujone (or - or d-thujone). Thujone is the major component of
wormwood oil and accounts for up to 90% of the oil’s weight (Simonsen
1949).
.
A FINAL NOTE ON ACTIVE INGREDIENTS
In addition to those ingredients mentioned above, there may be other
unidentified compounds which are important. We should not overlook the
possibility that a group of compounds might together play a central
role in absinthe intoxication. Groups of compounds in a plant may have
some pharmacological effect which the individual compounds lack when
studied separately. (Ginkgo biloba seems to be an example of this).
WHAT MODERN ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES ARE RELATED TO ABSINTHE?
Herb Sainte and Pernod are names of modern wormwood-free absinthes.
Typically, additional star anise is added to balance the flavor. Herb
Sainte is manufactured in New Orleans. Pernod is named after
Henri-Louis Pernod, who founded the most important absinthe distillery
in France in the early 1800s.
Pastis is a similar liqueur to absinthe and was also originally made
with wormwood. However, the dominant flavor in pastis is licorice
(rather than the star anise of modern Pernod or Herb Sainte). Pastis
brands include Ricard, Duval, Jeannot, Casanis, and Henri Bardouin
(Steinriede, 1996).
Vermouth, chartreuse, and benedictine all contain small amounts of
thujone. In fact, vermouth, which is made using the flower heads from
wormwood, takes its name from the German wermuth (”wormwood”).
There are, of course, many other essential oil containing drinks, such as Ouzo and Jagermeister.
Wormwood is popular as a flavoring for brannvin (an alcoholic drink made from potatoes) in Sweden.
WHAT IS THE LEGAL STATUS OF ABSINTHE?
(What follows is an attempt to describe absinthe’s legal status. The
wise reader will remember that I am not a lawyer. There may be relevant
laws or legal rulings with which I am unfamiliar.)
Although it is banned in some Western countries, absinthe isn’t
controlled as a drug but as a food. As with many other things
considered poisonous, you aren’t allowed to commercially make food or
drink containing more than trace amounts of thujone. However, simple
possession of thujone-containing ethanol solutions will probably not
get you into legal problems. Presumably you would be legally liable for
any possible damages if you gave absinthe to others to drink. Artemisia
species are completely legal and are attractive perennial ornamental
plants.
In the United States of America, absinthe was originally banned by Food
Inspection Decision 147 in 1912. Now, thujone is banned as a food
additive according to Section 801A of the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act of August, 1972. Wormwood was included on a list of unsafe
herbs which the FDA released in 1975.
The European Community Codex Committee on Food Additives has restricted
the levels of thujone to 0.5 ppm (mg/kg) in food and beverages, 10 ppm
(mg/kg) in alcoholic beverages containing more than 25% alcohol, 5 ppm
(mg/kg) in weaker alcoholic beverages, and 35 ppm in bitters. Absinthe
was banned in Belgium in 1905, in Switzerland in 1907, in Italy in
1913, and in France in 1915.
Absinthe (made with wormwood) is still available in Spain (contrary to
Pendell (1995)) and reportedly in Denmark, Andorra, and Portugal as
well. It has also recently become popular in the Czech Republic under
the brand name “Hill’s Absinth.”
VAN GOGH AND ABSINTHE
Although the Dutch postimpressionist Vincent Van Gogh is now highly
acclaimed, he received little recognition in his lifetime. Instead, he
lead a difficult life which included depression, bizarre psychiatric
symptoms, and finally suicide. Van Gogh’s difficult life –with all its
romantic and tragic elements — has been the focus of much medical
speculation. His unusual painting style, psychiatric internment, and
voluminous correspondence have proven fertile ground for the theories
of modern physicians seeking to diagnosis his ailments. Some of these
theories have suggested that some kind of drug-induced intoxication was
responsible for his painting style and medical symptoms.
Arnold (1988) has argued that Van Gogh’s absinthe drinking played an
important role in his illness. In various publications, he (and his
colleagues) have suggested that Van Gogh suffered from acute
intermittent porphyria (Bonkovsky et al., 1992; Loftus and Arnold,
1991). In this syndrome, a genetic defect in hepatic heme synthesis
causes attacks. Symptoms during these attacks can include acute
abdominal pain, anxiety, hysteria, delirium, phobias, psychosis,
organic disorders, agitation, depression, and altered consciousness
from tiredness to coma (Burgovne et al., 1995). Sometimes only one or a
few of these symptoms are present during an attack. Attacks can be
brought on by nutritional and environmental factors. Van Gogh’s
fasting, overworking, malnutrition, and alcohol and absinthe use could
have all contributed to triggering attacks.
If Van Gogh did indeed have acute intermittent porphyria, absinthe
could have played a particularly significant role. In an in vitro study
using chick embryo liver cells, Bonkovsky et al. (1992) have
demonstrated that alpha-thujone and some related terpenes are
porphyrogenic. In other words, assuming terpenes accumulate to a
sufficient extent in the liver, drinking absinthe could trigger attacks
in someone with a genetic defect in hepatic heme synthesis. This theory
seems particularly compelling because it explains Van Gogh’s symptoms,
the age of onset of his problems, the diseases suffered by other family
members, and the role of his lifestyle in contributing to his illness.
Arnold (1988) has further suggested that Van Gogh’s fondness for
absinthe developed into a generalized craving for thujone and related
terpene molecules. Van Gogh is known to have used large amounts of
camphor (another terpene) in an attempt to treat insomnia. Furthermore,
there are several instances of bizarre behavior which (attempts to eat
paint and drink turpentine and kerosene) Arnold sees as evidence for
this craving. Although this idea is interesting, there is no strong
evidence that terpenes are addictive in this manner. I also wonder if
Arnold is not reading too much into Van Gogh’s behavior. Not every
action of mentally ill or delirious individuals can be explained, after
all. Still, even if Van Gogh were only addicted to the alcohol in
absinthe, such an addiction could conceivably have kept Van Gogh
see-sawing between alcohol withdrawal and porphyric attacks.
Other authors have focused on Van Gogh’s paintings and whether his
illness or drug use might have contributed to his creativity. One
theory (Lee 1981) is that the bright yellow hues and character of his
later works were the result of digitalis intoxication, which can
produce xanthopsia (yellow vision) and coronas (glowing haloes around
objects). Although there is no definite record of Van Gogh receiving
this drug, it was used as a treatment for epilepsy and Van Gogh twice
painted his physician holding a fox glove (Digitalis purpurea) plant,
from which digitalis is extracted. Santonin, which is found in low
concentrations in Artemisia absinthium and Artemisia pontica, is also
known to cause xanthopsia. However, Arnold and Loftus (1991) have
determined that the amount of santonin in absinthe would have been
insufficient to produce xanthopsia. Santonin therefore cannot be an
explanation for Van Gogh’s painting style, while digitalis may have
played some role.
In general, I think this type of speculation on the contribution of
drugs and illness to art is unproductive. It often seems to rely on an
underlying assumption that breaks from ‘realistic’ representation
require some explanation other than the artist’s intent. Despite these
reservations, I think a case can be made that Van Gogh’s experience
with mental illness and absinthe intoxication may have influenced his
painting. As Arnold and Loftus (1991) write:
…novel experiences of relative sizes, shapes, and colours perceived
under the influence of absinthe may have been recalled later and
incorporated into new and daring compositions, perspectives, and
palettes (p. 507).
Other artists have been known to find inspiration in drug use. However,
the connection between creativity and drug intoxication is complex.
Drug taking is a social activity. At the same time as an artist is
taking a drug, he or she is often interacting with some social group
with its own beliefs, behaviors, and aesthetics. When Van Gogh began to
drink absinthe, he probably did so in a cafe frequented by writers and
artists. It is impossible to separate the artistic influence of that
stimulating social environment from whatever effects absinthe could
have had on his perception and creativity.
OTHER ARTISTS AND ABSINTHE
Famous absinthe users include:
• Edouard Manet
• Charles Baudelaire
• Paul Verlaine
• Arthur Rimbaud
• Oscar Wilde
• Ernest Dowson
• Edgar Degas
• Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
• Vincent Van Gogh
• Adolphe Monticelli
• Paul Gauguin
• Alfred Jarry
• Pablo Picasso
• Ernest Hemingway
Visual artworks inspired by absinthe include (expanded from Max’s (1990) list.):
• Edouard Manet’s 1859 The Absinthe Drinker
• Jean-Francois Raffaelli’s 1861 Absinthe Drinkers
• Honore Daumier’s 1863 Absinthe Lithographs
• Edgar Degas’ 1876 L’Absinthe
• Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec 1887 Portrait of Van Gogh
• Vincent Van Gogh’s 1887 Still Life with Absinthe
• Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec 1887 Portrait of Van Gogh (pastel)
• Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec 1893 Monsieur Boileau at the Cafe
• Pablo Picasso 1901 Harlequin and his Companion
• Pablo Picasso 1901 The Poet Cornuty
• Pablo Picasso 1901 The Absinthe Drinker
• Pablo Picasso 1902 The Absinthe Drinker
• Pablo Picasso 1911 Glass of Absinthe
• Pablo Picasso 1914 Absinthe Glass
Other than these restrictions, Trappist beers do not have a lot in common with each other, especially regarding flavor, which can be greatly varied. Abbey beers are commercially brewed and loosely associated with a monastery by name only. From here, the subcategories and styles expand greatly and are beyond the scope of this entry, but we can take a look at the more common styles.
The standard logic regarding 
